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Aid
and Comfort for Torturers:
Psychology and Coercive Interrogations in Historical Perspective
By
Stephen Soldz
04/14/07 "ICH"
-- -- Talk delivered, March 17, 2007 at the Psychoanalytic
Institute of Northern California (PINC) conference:
The Politics and
Psychology of Torture in a Time of Terror
On January 24, 2003,
National Guardsman Sean Baker, stationed as a military policeman
at Guantanamo detention center,
volunteered to be a mock prisoner, donning an orange suit
and refusing to leave his cell as part of a training exercise.
As planned, an Immediate Reaction Force team of MPs attempted to
extract him from the cell. When he uttered the code word, "red,"
indicating that this was a drill and that he'd had enough, one
of the MPs "forced my head down against the steel floor and was
sort of just grinding it into the floor. The individual then,
when I picked up my head and said, ‘Red,’ slammed my head down
against the floor," says Baker. "I was so afraid, I groaned out,
‘I’m a U.S. soldier.' And when I said that, he slammed my head
again, one more time against the floor. And I groaned out one
more time, I said, ‘I’m a U.S. soldier.’ And I heard them say,
‘Whoa, whoa, whoa,' ". Even though, unlike if Baker had been a
real prisoner, the "extraction" was called off part-way through,
he was diagnosed with traumatic brain injury and was left with
permanent injuries, including frequent epileptic-style seizures.
When asked what would
have happened if he had been a real detainee, Baker told CBS's
60 Minutes: "I think they would have busted him up. I've
seen detainees come outta there with blood on 'em. …If there
wasn't someone to say, 'I'm a U.S. soldier,' if you were
speaking Arabic or Pashto or Urdu or some other language in the
camp, we may never know what would have happened to that
individual."
This detention
facility is one of the environments in which psychologists serve
as consultants to interrogations. The American Psychological
Association sees no ethical problems with psychologists serving
there.
We psychoanalysts
know that understanding requires a historical perspective. The
abuses being perpetrated on America's detainees in the War of
Terror, and psychologists' roles in those abuses have a long
history.
About 60 years ago,
as the Cold War shifted into high gear, people in the American
government, most notably the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),
became concerned that the Communist enemies had developed
specialized techniques for mind control. They observed senior
Soviet officials and others confessing to crimes they likely had
not committed. They were shocked by the number of American
Korean War soldiers who collaborated with their captors and
denounced the United States. At first defensively, and then as
an offensive tool, the CIA undertook what became a
25-year program of research into mind control techniques
under a variety of names, including, most notoriously MKULTRA.
While time precludes an extensive review of this program, [the
December 1977 APA Monitor contains an account of some
of these activities] two components are of special relevance to
today's topic. 1) For years the Agency, as the CIA is known,
searched for a magic "truth serum" that would allow them to get
captives to reveal their secrets; and 2) the CIA and the
military funded extensive research into potentially effective
interrogation techniques, including the possible use of
hypnosis, of drugs, of isolation and extreme sensory
deprivation, of brain stimulation, etc..
Some of the knowledge
developed during MKULTRA and related programs were incorporated
into the CIA's
KUBARK interrogation Manual in 1963. Similar techniques were
contained in CIA training manuals distributed throughout Latin
America in the 1970's and 80's. The only one of these manuals
which became public is one
used to train in Honduras in 1983, as was revealed in a
January 1997 Baltimore Sun article entitled: “Torture
was taught by CIA; Declassified manual details the methods used
in Honduras; Agency denials refuted”
The manual advises an interrogator to "manipulate the subject's
environment, to create unpleasant or intolerable situations."
From this Baltimore Sun article:
“"While
we do not stress the use of coercive techniques, we do want to
make you aware of them and the proper way to use them," the
manual's introduction states. The manual says such methods are
justified when subjects have been trained to resist noncoercive
measures.
Forms
of coercion explained in the interrogation manual include:
Inflicting pain or the threat of pain: "The threat to inflict
pain may trigger fears more damaging than the immediate
sensation of pain. In fact, most people underestimate their
capacity to withstand pain."
A
later section states: "The pain which is being inflicted upon
him from outside himself may actually intensify his will to
resist. On the other hand, pain which he feels he is inflicting
upon himself is more likely to sap his resistance. ”
Those who have
examined practices at US detention facilities in Afghanistan,
Iraq, and Guantanamo have identified, as a 2005 126 page report
from Physicians for Human Rights entitled
Break Them Down describes in its subtitle: "Systematic
Use of Psychological Torture by US Forces."
The practice of
Psychological Torture in US facilities includes:
Prolonged Isolation
for months, even years.
Sleep Deprivation,
sometimes allowing as little as two hours a night, for prolonged
periods
Sensory Distortion
including sensory deprivation (masks, goggles, etc.), very loud
music; and hypothermia (turning air conditioning on high)
Sexual and
Cultural Humiliation
-- forced urination on self; forced nakedness; sexual
humiliation; religious humiliation (Koran’s being thrown
around); being led naked on a leash. Being forced to bark like a
dog. [As regards religious humiliation, former Guantanamo
Chaplain James Yee was quoted as stating in a
recent lecture: "
'Guantanamo
Bay's secret weapon,' … is 'the use of Islam against prisoners
to break them.' He said prisoners were forced to prostrate in
the center of a circle inscribed with a pentagram by a guard who
yelled, 'Satan is your God now, not Allah.' He said female
interrogators 'exploit(ed) conservative Islamic etiquette" by
undressing before interrogating detainees and "giving lap
dances" to unnerve them.
Yee said the Quran,
believed by Muslims to be the literal word of God, was
'desecrated in many different ways,' such as being urinated upon
and 'tossed on the floor.' "]
These purely
psychological techniques are often combined with another
component:
Self-inflicted pain
– the infamous “stress positions”, including chaining in
positions for hours on end and the infamous Abu Ghraib picture
of a detainee balancing on a box with arms outstretched and
electrodes attached (this technique is referred to in the
torture literature as the "Vietnam") [Remember, from the
Honduras interrogation manual: 'On the other hand, pain which he
feels he is inflicting upon himself is more likely to sap his
resistance.']
Additionally, there
have been repeated claims by detainees that they were subjected
to drugging. [Remember that developing drugs for use in
interrogations was a key element of the CIA's MKULTRA research.]
Thus, as one example out of many, on March 2, 2007, the
Sydney Morning Herald contained an account of Australian
detainee David Hicks in US custody. In addition to the beatings,
the isolation, the cultural assaults, the self-inflicted pain,
there was
this line: "He was also injected with a substance that 'made
my head feel strange.' "
Many of these
techniques, in reduced form, were used in the military’s SERE
(Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) program to teach
American officers counter-resistance training. According to
several journalists, these methods were "reverse-engineered" and
exported to Guantanamo and elsewhere through training in SERE
techniques. Thus Salon's Mark Benjamin, in an article
entitled "Torture
Teachers" documents that SERE techniques were indeed taught
to interrogators at Guantanamo. Benjamin goes on to state:
"There are striking
similarities between the reported detainee abuse at both
Guantánamo and Abu Ghraib and the techniques used on soldiers
going through SERE school, including forced nudity, stress
positions, isolation, sleep deprivation, sexual humiliation and
exhaustion from exercise. The unnamed interrogation chief from
Guantánamo notes in his statement that on his watch detainees
were exposed to loud music and yelling. 'The rule on volume," he
said, "was that it should not be so loud that it would blow the
detainees' ears out.' The chief claimed interrogators would
crank up the air conditioning to make detainees cold, and that
one prisoner was also given a "lap dance" by a female
interrogator 'to use sexual tension in an attempt to break a
detainee.' "
While the role of
psychologists at Guantanamo and elsewhere is still murky, due to
the extreme secrecy surrounding it, more and more evidence is
dribbling out. It increasingly looks like key agents in this
were psychologists and, initially, psychiatrists, in so-called
Behavioral Science Consultation Teams (BSCT) that participated
in selected interrogations.
Mohammed al-Qahtani
was
interrogated over many months at Guantanamo. BSCT
Psychologist
Major John Leso was present during this interrogation.
During al-Qahtani’s
interrogation he was subjected to extreme cold to the point
where his heart slowed and he was hospitalized (he was then
warmed up and again subjected to extreme cold), he was injected
with several bags of saline solution while being strapped to a
table until he urinated on himself, and he was forced to bark
like a dog; we are not told what was done to him to get him to
bark. He required cardiac monitoring after 60 days in a cell
flooded with artificial light, being questioned for 48 out of 54
days for 20 hours at a time. He was briefly hospitalized and
immediately returned for continued interrogation.
By the way, the US
government insists that al-Qahtani was treated “humanely,” as
are, it claims, all the Guantanamo detainees. And the American
Psychological Association leadership has repeatedly claimed that
the BSCT psychologists participate in interrogations to
prevent abuse, to ensure "that such processes are safe and
ethical for all participants". They have never commented
publicly on the interrogation involvement of Major Leso, an APA
member, not have they taken any steps whatsoever to investigate
the repeated claims that BSCT psychologists are in Guantanamo to
teach torture techniques, not to prevent their use.
In July 2005, the
New Yorker published an article by Jane Mayer entitled
The Experiment. In it she presents the evidence
available at that time on SERE and its role in the interrogation
process at Guantanamo. She quotes Baher Azmy, an attorney for
one of the detainees whose client reported physical brutality,
sexual humiliation, and being injected with debilitating drugs:
Attorney Azmy told
Mayer:
“These psychological gambits are obviously not isolated events.
They’re prevalent and systematic. They’re tried, measured, and
charted. These are ways to humiliate and disorient the
detainees. The whole place appears to be one giant human
experiment.”
The prominent Middle
East scholar Juan Cole, on his Informed Comment blog
posted an email from a former military officer:
"I'm a former US
[military officer], and had the 'pleasure' of attending SERE
school….
The course I attended . . . [had] a mock POW camp, where we had
a chance to be prisoners for 2-3 days. The camp is also used as
a training tool for CI [counter-intelligence], interrogators,
etc….
I'm sure you must
also realize that Gitmo must be being used as a "laboratory" for
all these psychological manipulation techniques by the CI guys.
Absolutely sickening . ..
1. My gut feeling
tells me that the SERE camps were 'laboratories' and part of the
training program for military counter-intelligence and
interrogator personnel. I heard this anecdotally as far as the
training goes….
2. Looking at Gitmo in the 'big picture', you have to wonder why
it is still in operation though they know so many are innocent
of major charges. A look through history at the various
'experimentation' programs of the DOD gives a ready answer. The
camp provides a major opportunity to expose a population to
various psychological control techniques. Look at some of the
stuff that has become public, and this becomes even more
apparent. Especially the sensory deprivation--not only sleep,
but there are the photos of inmates in gas masks or
sight/hearing/smell deprivation setups. There has already been
voluminous research into sensory deprivation, and it seems this
is another good opportunity for more."
PENS Task Force
As word spread about
the involvement of health professionals, psychologists included,
in abusive interrogations, pressure built on professional
associations to do something about the situation. The American
Psychological Association decided to form a Presidential Task
Force on Psychological Ethics and National Security (PENS).
Strangely, the APA did not release the names of PEN task force
to the APA membership, nor were the names included in the
report. The PENS membership was first published in the press in
full by Mark Benjamin of
Salon last July, more than a year after the PENS report
was released; Benjamin got the names from a Congressional
source, not the APA.
Let's look at a few
of the members, as described in their official
APA biographical statements:
Colonel Morgan Banks
is currently the Command Psychologist and Chief of the
Psychological Applications Directorate of the U.S. Army Special
Operations Command (USASOC). " He is the senior Army
Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) Psychologist,
responsible for the training and oversight of all Army SERE
Psychologists, who include those involved in SERE training…. He
provides technical support and consultation to all Army
psychologists providing interrogation support, and his office
currently provides the only Army training for psychologists in
repatriation planning and execution, interrogation support, and
behavioral profiling."
Robert A. Fein
is currently a consultant to the Directorate for Behavioral
Sciences of the Department of Defense Counterintelligence Field
Activity (CIFA), the DOD Criminal Investigative Task
Force (CITF), and the U.S. Secret Service's National
Threat Assessment Center. He
also serves as a member of the Intelligence Science Board.
Colonel Larry C.
James In
2003, he was the Chief Psychologist for the Joint
Intelligence Group at GTMO, Cuba, and in 2004 he was the
Director, Behavioral Science Unit, Joint Interrogation and
Debriefing Center at Abu Ghraib,
Iraq. Col. James was assigned to Iraq to develop legal and
ethical policies consistent with the Geneva Convention
Guidelines and the APA Ethics Code in response to the abuse
scandal.
Captain Bryce E.
Lefever
as assigned to the Navy's Survival Evasion Resistance Escape
(SERE) School from 1990 to 1993. He served with Navy
Special Forces from 1998 to 2003 and was deployed as the
Joint Special Forces Task Force psychologist to Afghanistan
in 2002, where he lectured to interrogators and was consulted on
various interrogation techniques. Capt. Lefever has been
deployed to many parts of the world during his career including
Haiti, Panama, Israel, Afghanistan, Italy, Bahrain, Crete,
Puerto Rico, Iceland, Antarctica, and Spain where he has
lectured on Brainwashing: The Method of Forceful
Interrogation.
R. Scott Shumate
has worked for the federal government in highly classified
positions that have required him to travel extensively and live
overseas. He has performed many of his duties under
highly stressful and difficult circumstances. In May of
2003, Dr. Shumate accepted a senior position in the
Department of Defense as the Director of Behavioral Science for
the Counterintelligence Field Activity…. DOD/CIFA is
responsible for support to offensive and defensive
counterintelligence (CI) efforts…. His team of renowned forensic
psychologists are engaged in risk assessments of the
Guantanamo Bay Detainees.
Also on the PENS
taskforce was Michael Gelles. Dr. Gelles was the chief
psychologist for the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Dr.
Gelles was at Guantanamo in order to develop evidence for
potential criminal prosecution of detainees. As he witnessed the
treatment of detainees, he was outraged and became a
whistleblower. According to a
Boston Globe article "Dr. Michael Gelles, completed a study
of Guantánamo interrogations in December 2003 that included
extracts of detainee interrogation logs. Gelles reported to the
service director, David Brant, that interrogators were using
'abusive techniques and coercive psychological procedures.'" As
such, Dr. Gelles is one of the true heroes of this rather sordid
tale. At the same time, however, it is at least debateable for
two reasons whether he should have been on the PENS taskforce.
First, as a member of the military hierarchy he was subject to
military discipline, rather than being a free agent; like the
other PENS members from the military and intelligence services,
his career could be directly affected by the outcome of the PENS
process. [Just ask the heroic Navy JAG attorney,
Lt. Commander Charles Swift who won a landmark Supreme Court
victory against the Guantanamo military tribunals in the Hamdan
case, only to be forced to retire after over 20 years of sevice.]
Further, as a psychologist and military interrogator, Dr. Gelles
was in no position to seriously consider the view that
involvement in interrogations was, in itself, unethical.
Not surprisingly,
given its composition, the
PENS report
concluded:
"The Task Force
stated that it is consistent with the APA Ethics Code for
psychologists to serve in consultative roles to interrogation
and information-gathering processes for national
security-related purposes."
In handling this
report, the APA did not follow normal procedures and did not
present it to the elected Council of Representatives for
discussion and approval. Rather, within days it was presented to
and approved by the APA Board, circumventing Council.
Other Professional
Associations
In contrast, the
American Medical Association, in June 2006
adopted: "Physicians must neither conduct nor directly
participate in an interrogation, because a role as
physician-interrogator undermines the physician's role as healer
and thereby erodes trust in the individual
physician-interrogator and in the medical profession."
In June, 2005, the
American Psychiatric Association
expressed concern over the reports of psychiatrist
involvement in abuses at Guantanamo:
"The American
Psychiatric Association… is troubled by recent reports regarding
alleged violations of professional medical ethics by
psychiatrists at Guantanamo Bay. APA is reviewing issues related
to psychiatry and interrogation procedures and plans to develop
a specific policy statement in the near future."
I have been unable to
find one mention of concern regarding reports of involvement of
psychologists in Guantanamo abuses by the American Psychological
Association or any of its recent leadership. Rather, in February
2006, then President Gerald Koocher
wrote:
"A number of
opportunistic commentators masquerading as scholars have
continued to report on alleged abuses by mental health
professionals."
In May, 2006 the
American Psychiatric Association went on to
ban all direct participation in interrogations by
psychiatrists:
"No psychiatrist
should participate directly in the interrogation of person[s]
held in custody by military or civilian investigative or law
enforcement authorities, whether in the United States or
elsewhere."
American Psychiatric
Association President Steven S. Sharfstein devoted a significant
portion of his
2006 Presidential Address to this issue:
" We must… exercise
vigilance over our other core values. When I read in the New
England Journal of Medicine about psychiatrists
participating in the interrogation of Guantanamo detainees, I
wrote to the Assistant Secretary for Health in the Department of
Defense expressing serious concern about this practice. In
mid-October I found myself on a Navy jet out of Andrews Air
Force Base… on a 3-hour trip to Guantanamo Bay. We were… briefed
thoroughly on interrogation methods and the involvement of
Behavioral Science Consultation Teams… in the process….
After returning to
Andrews, we began a spirited 3-hour discussion over dinner. I
found myself looking eye to eye with top Pentagon brass -- they
are much taller than I am, but we were sitting down. I told the
generals that psychiatrists will not participate in the
interrogation of persons held in custody. Psychologists, by
contrast, had issued a position statement allowing consultations
in interrogations.
If you were ever
wondering what makes us different from psychologists, here it
is. This is a paramount challenge to our ethics and our
Hippocratic training. Judging from the record of the actual
treatment of detainees, it is the thinnest of thin lines that
separates such consultation from involvement in facilitating
deception and cruel and degrading treatment. Innocent people
being released from Guantanamo-people who never were our enemies
and had no useful information in the War on Terror-are returning
to their homes and families bearing terrible internal scars. Our
profession is lost if we play any role in inflicting these
wounds."
As President
Sharfstein looked eye to eye with Pentagon brass, then American
Psychological Association President Ronald Levant was
along for the
trip to Guantanamo. While the psychiatrists' President told
the brass "that psychiatrists will not participate in the
interrogation of persons held in custody," here is what the
psychologists' President had to say upon return:
I accepted this offer
to visit Guantanamo because I saw the invitation as an important
opportunity to continue to provide our expertise and guidance
for how psychologists can play an appropriate and ethical role
in national security investigations. Our goals are to ensure
that psychologists add value and safeguards to such
investigations and that they are done in an ethical and
effective manner that protects the safety of all involved.”
As a psychologist, it
deeply saddens me to admit that Psychiatric Association
President Sharfstein has it correct. What distinguishes the two
professions is that psychiatrists have taken a moral position,
at the cost of a potential loss of access to top military
decision-makers and funding-providers, while the leadership of
psychologists, in contrast, have put access and, potentially,
funding, above taking a moral stand on the perversions of the
War on Terror. In the process of protecting this access, the
psychological association has regularly used
deception and
bad faith, trying to argue that participation in
interrogations is, indeed, ethical.
The Association
leadership has worked persistently to protect the ability of
psychologists to participate in "national security"
interrogations, even, at times, claiming an
ethical obligation to do so to prevent harm to society,
presumably from the "terrorists" imprisoned there for the last
five years. [See also Olivia Moorehead-Slaughter’s
report on the PENS Task Force she chaired: "as experts in
human behavior, psychologists contribute to effective
interrogations."]
These efforts have
paid off: On June 7, 2006 the New York Times
reported:
"Pentagon officials
said Tuesday that they would try to use only psychologists, and
not psychiatrists, to help interrogators devise strategies to
get information from detainees at places like Guantánamo Bay,
Cuba.
The new policy
follows by little more than two weeks an overwhelming vote by
the American Psychiatric Association discouraging its members
from participating in those efforts.
Dr. William
Winkenwerder Jr., assistant secretary of defense for health
affairs, told reporters that the new policy favoring the use of
psychologists over psychiatrists was a recognition of differing
positions taken by their respective professional groups."
Thus did psychologist
score a major victory over their ancient enemy, the
psychiatrists.
On January 8, 2007,
British attorney Brent Mickum wrote of his two clients, Bisher
al-Rawi and Jamil el-Banna, in
Guantánamo's lost souls on the website of the British
newspaper the Guardian. These two men are known from
extensive evidence almost certainly to be innocent:
Bisher al-Rawi is,
slowly but surely, slipping into madness….
The diminution of
Bisher's mental faculties has not taken place all at once.
Gradually, over time, Bisher simply has worn down. He no longer
has the power to withstand the ravages of psychological
isolation and the constant abuse he suffers…. To be sure, Bisher
is not the only affected prisoner; attorneys representing other
prisoners at Guantánamo report that clients who are being kept
in isolation are going insane.…
Bisher's world is a 6
by 8-foot cell in Camp V, where alleged "non-compliant"
prisoners are incarcerated. After years and hundreds of
interrogations, Bisher finally refused to be interrogated
further. Despite the fact that Guantánamo officials have
publicly proclaimed that prisoners are no longer required to
participate in interrogations, Bisher is deemed non-compliant
and tortured daily.
Solitary confinement
is but a single aspect of the torture that Bisher endures on a
daily basis. While in isolation, Bisher has been constantly
subjected to severe temperature extremes and other sensory
torments, many of which are part of a sleep deprivation program
that never abates. Frequently, Bisher's cell is unbearably cold
because the air conditioning is turned up to the maximum.
Sometimes, his captors take his orange jumpsuit and sheet,
leaving him only in his shorts. For a week at a time, Bisher
constantly shivers and is unable to sleep because of the extreme
cold. Once, when Bisher attempted to warm himself by covering
himself with his prayer rug, one of the few "comfort items"
permitted to him, his guards removed it for "misuse". On other
occasions, the heat is allowed to become so unbearable that
breathing is difficult and labored. For a week at a time, all
Bisher can do is lie completely still, sweat pouring off his
body during the day when the Cuban heat can reach 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, and the temperature inside Camp V is even higher.
Bisher is allowed no
contact with fellow prisoners. Bright lights are kept on 24
hours a day. Bisher is given 15 sheets of toilet paper per day,
but because he used his sheets to cover his eyes to help him to
sleep, his toilet paper - considered another comfort item…has
been removed for "misuse". Accordingly, he is no longer receives
his daily ration of 15 sheets of toilet paper. Imagine being in
the position of having to make a choice between using your tiny
allotment of toilet paper for the purpose for which it was
intended or using it to sleep, and then having it removed
altogether.
Dinner never arrives
before 9.30pm and sometimes comes as late as 12.00am. It is
almost always cold. Changes of clothing take place at midnight
when prisoners are given a single, thin cotton sheet for
sleeping. Thereafter, a noisy library cart is dragged through
the corridors; Bisher has been denied library privileges for
some time, but the library cart and the noise are constant
reminders that he is afforded no intellectual stimulation.
Prisoners are unable to sleep until close to 1.00am. They are
awakened at 5.00am, when each is required to return his sheet.
All of Bisher's legal documents and family photographs were
seized in June and have never been returned."
About
the other prisoner he represents, Jamil el-Banna, this attorney
reports:
" I have see[n]
letters from Jamil's youngest children on my visits to
Guantánamo, one-page letters that are heavily redacted by
military censors. What is the offending language that the
military has seen fit to redact? Language like "Daddy, I love
you" and "Daddy, I miss you." How do I know? Because on my
instructions, Jamil's wife has saved copies of the letters her
children sent."
Guantanamo and other
US detention facilities are illegal and immoral institutions.
They appear to be designed to break people down, to destroy
them, whether they are innocent or guilty, whether they have any
intelligence value or not. It is possible that they are
intentional experimental facilities designed to develop and test
new behavior manipulation techniques. In any case, they clearly
constitute a hell on earth, the "gulag of out time" as Amnesty
International described Guantanamo. It is well past time that
the United States start respecting those lofty human rights
sentiments spouted by our leaders and enshrined in our laws and
binding international treaties.
It is also long past
time that psychology as a profession, along with the other
health professions, starts contributing to the building of
respect for humanity rather than aiding the creation of hell. As
Harry Stack Sullivan clearly stated long ago: " We are all much
more simply human than otherwise." Surely we, as psychologists
and psychoanalysts, should be leaders in recognizing the
humanity of all, even those identified as alleged "terrorists."
Surely, carrying out our duties as psychologists, as citizens,
and as human beings is of far greater importance than is
maintaining our professional access to the levers of power. If
not, then humanity has no need of our profession.
Stephen Soldz is a psychoanalyst, psychologist, public
health researcher, and faculty member at the
Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis. He maintains the
Psychoanalysts for Peace and Justice web site and the
Psyche, Science, and Society blog.
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